LSE: Public lectures and events

Speaker(s): Paul Mason | We face a triple threat: authoritarian politicians, the possibility of intelligent machines and a secular fatalism and irrationality. But they can all be fought. Paul Mason explains how. Paul Mason (@paulmasonnews) is a British commentator, journalist and author. This event marks the publication of Paul's new book, Clear Bright Future: A Radical Defence of the Human Being. In the 1980s Paul worked as a special needs teacher, a theatre musical director and university lecturer before switching to journalism in the early 1990s. He was deputy editor of Computer Weekly during the dotcom boom and joined BBC Newsnight in 2001. ​He worked as economics editor on Newsnight, switching to Channel 4 News in 2013. During fifteen years as a public service broadcaster he covered stories as varied as Hurricane Katrina, the collapse of Lehman Brothers, Occupy and the Arab Spring. Plus the Greek crisis, the Taksim Square revolt and the 2014 Gaza war. He won the RTS Specialist Reporter Award in 2012 and was the inaugural winner of the Ellen Meiksins Wood prize in 2018. The Ralph Miliband Programme (@RMilibandLSE) is one of LSE's most prestigious lecture series and seeks to advance Ralph Miliband's spirit of free social inquiry.

Speaker(s): Dr María Ana Lugo, Professor Branko Milanovic, Dr Paul Segal | The panel discuss the evolution of the global distribution of income and political implications, highlighting endogenous forces of rising inequality in liberal capitalism embedded in globalisation. The last quarter century of globalisation has witnessed the largest reshuffle of global incomes since the Industrial Revolution. The global Gini index declined by about 2 points over the twenty-five year period 1988-2013, while within the global distribution of income three changes stand out. First, China has graduated from the bottom ranks, creating an important global “middle” class that has transformed a twin-peaked 1988 global distribution into the single-peaked distribution we observe today. The main “winners” were country-deciles that in 1988 were around the median of the global income distribution, 90% of them representing people in Asia. Second, the “losers” were the country-deciles that in 1988 were around the 85th percentile of the global income distribution, almost 90% of them representing people in OECD economies. Third, the global top 1% was another “winner” whose incomes rose substantially. These three changes open up the following three political issues. In the developing world the big question is how to manage the rising expectations of meaningful political participation in emerging countries like China. In the rich countries, it is how to "placate" the relative losers of the last 30 years so that they do not turn away from globalisation and towards populist anti-immigrant policies. Cutting across all countries, and directly implicated in both of these questions, is how to constraint the rising economic and political power of the global elite. The increasing gap between the Western “top 1 percenters” and the middle classes that is at the origin of many of recent political developments may not be a temporary glitch, but may be driven by endogenous forces of rising inequality in systems of liberal capitalism embedded in globalisation. María Ana Lugo (@MariaAnaLugo) is a senior economist at the Poverty and Equity Global Practice at the World Bank and a council member of the Society for the Study of Economic Inequality (ECINEQ). Branko Milanovic (@BrankoMilan) is Visiting Presidential Professor and LIS Senior Scholar at the Graduate Center, City University of New York. Paul Segal (@pdsegal) is Senior Lecturer in Economics, Department of International Development, Kings College London and Visiting Senior Fellow, International Inequalities Institute, LSE. David Soskice is School Professor of Political Science and Economics at the LSE. The International Inequalities Institute (@LSEInequalities) at LSE brings together experts from many LSE departments and centres to lead cutting-edge research focused on understanding why inequalities are escalating in numerous arenas across the world, and to develop critical tools to address these challenges.

Speaker(s): Professor John Ikenberry, Professor Mary Kaldor, Professor Peter Trubowitz, Professor Vladislav Zubok | How and why has the liberal promise of the post-Cold War world not been realised? Where is the world now heading? Is the post-Cold War era over? In 1989 the Cold War ended. American pundit, Francis Fukuyama, confidently announced the end of history with the complete victory of liberalism word-wide. Globalisation and democracy represented the wave of the future. But thirty year later the tide of history appears to have turned. Fukuyama now talks bleakly of the crisis of democracy and the possible demise of the liberal order. Book after book proclaims the return of a 'new' Cold War between Russia, China and the West. And globalisation itself is in question. John Ikenberry is Albert G Milbank Professor of Politics and International Affairs, Princeton University. Mary Kaldor is Director of the Conflict and Civil Society Research Unit, Department of International Development, LSE. Peter Trubowitz (@ptrubowitz) is Head of the Department of International Relations and Director of the US Centre at LSE. Vladislav Zubok is Professor of International History and author of The Idea of Russia: The Life and Work of Dmitry Likhachev. Michael Cox is Director of LSE IDEAS and Emeritus Professor of International Relations at LSE. LSE IDEAS (@lseideas) is LSE's foreign policy think tank. We connect academic knowledge of diplomacy and strategy with the people who use it.

Speaker(s): Professor Daniel Markovits | Merit is not a genuine excellence but rather a pretence, constructed to rationalise an offensive distribution of advantage. Merit, in short, is a sham. The meritocratic ideal—that social and economic rewards should track achievement rather than breeding—anchors the self-image of the age. Aristocracy has had its day, and meritocracy is now a basic tenet of civil religion in all advanced societies. Meritocracy promises to promote equality and opportunity by opening a previously hereditary elite to outsiders, armed with nothing save their own talents and ambitions. But today, middle-class children lose out to rich children at school, and middle-class adults lose out to elite graduates at work. At the same time, meritocracy entices an anxious and inauthentic elite into a pitiless, lifelong contest to secure income and status through its own excessive industry. In spite of its promises, meritocracy in fact installs a new form of aristocracy, purpose-built for a world in which the greatest source of income and wealth is not land but human capital and free labor. And merit is not a genuine excellence but rather—like the false virtues that aristocrats trumpeted in the ancien régime—a pretense, constructed to rationalize an offensive distribution of advantage. Daniel Markovits is Guido Calabresi Professor of Law at Yale Law School and Founding Director of the Center for the Study of Private Law. Markovits works in the philosophical foundations of private law, moral and political philosophy, and behavioral economics. He publishes in a range of disciplines, including in Science, The American Economic Review, and The Yale Law Journal. Markovits’s latest book, The Meritocracy Trap, places meritocracy at the center of rising economic inequality and social and political dysfunction. The book takes up the law, economics, and politics of human capital to identify the mechanisms through which meritocracy breeds inequality and to expose the burdens that meritocratic inequality imposes on all who fall within meritocracy’s orbit. Oriana Bandiera (@orianabandiera) is the Sir Anthony Atkinson Chair in Economics and Director of STICERD. This event is the Morishima Lecture. This lecture series is held in honour of Professor Michio Morishima (1923-2004), Sir John Hicks Professor of Economics at LSE and STICERD's first chairman. STICERD (@STICERD_LSE) brings together world-class academics to put economics and related disciplines at the forefront of research and policy.

Speaker(s): Professor Stephen Skowronek | The presidency of Donald Trump is so readily labeled "not normal" and "off-the charts" that it is hard to think of it any other way. Stephen Skowronek examines long-running patterns in the politics of presidential leadership to sort out what is new, and what is not, in the Trump phenomenon. In Skowronek hands presidential history is not a gauzy backdrop to something anomalous, but a critical source of insight into contemporary American politics. Stephen Skowronek is the Pelatiah Perit Professor of Political and Social Science at Yale University. He has published extensively on the development of American national Institutions and on the American presidency. His books include The Politics Presidents Make, Presidential Leadership in Political Time, and most recently, with Karen Orren, The Policy State: An American Predicament. He is currently the Winant Visiting Professor of American Government at the Rothermere American Institute in Oxford. Peter Trubowitz (@ptrubowitz) is Department Head of International Relations and Director of the US Centre at the London School of Economics and Political Science and Associate Fellow at Chatham House, Royal Institute of International Affairs. The LSE's United States Centre (@LSE_US) is a hub for global expertise, analysis and commentary on America. Our mission is to promote policy-relevant and internationally-oriented scholarship to meet the growing demand for fresh analysis and critical debate on the United States.

Speaker(s): Katrín Jakobsdóttir | Katrín Jakobsdóttir will discuss democratic challenges stemming from social inequalities, authoritarian politics and new technologies. Insecurities generated by globalisation, migration, and transformative technologies have created new societal divisions in liberal democracies and exacerbated the dislocation between personal identities and political loyalties. Since the Great Recession, the populist/authoritarian Right has profited from this trend, which has been accompanied by a critique of contemporary politics as being too technocratic and distant from the people. In her talk, Katrín Jakobsdóttir, the Prime Minister of Iceland, will argue that a renewed focus on the politics of equality is needed to respond to authoritarian tendencies and to the social challenges posed by the “fourth industrial revolution.“ Referring to her own political experience and to various forms of collective action – such as the #metoo movement – she makes the case for a democratic renewal based on social justice, gender equality and the green economy. Katrín Jakobsdóttir (@katrinjak) has been the Prime Minister of Iceland since November 2017 and the Leader of the Left-Green Movement since 2013. She is Iceland’s second female Prime Minister and served as Minister of Education, Science and Culture as well as Minister for Nordic Cooperation from 2009 to 2013. Minouche Shafik is Director of the London School of Economics and Political Science. Prior to this she was Deputy Governor of the Bank of England. The Institute of Global Affairs (@LSEIGA) aims to maximise the impact of LSE's leading expertise across the social sciences by shaping inclusive and locally-rooted responses to the most important and pressing global challenges. The International Inequalities Institute (@LSEInequalities) at LSE brings together experts from many LSE departments and centres to lead cutting-edge research focused on understanding why inequalities are escalating in numerous arenas across the world, and to develop critical tools to address these challenges. The Systemic Risk Centre (@LSE_SRC) was set up to study the risks that may trigger the next financial crisis and to develop tools to help policymakers and financial institutions become better prepared.

Speaker(s): Zsuzsanna Szelényi | What is happening in Hungary? How has a party of dissident young democrats become a vehicle for illiberal and semi-authoritarian rule, and what does this mean for contemporary politics in Europe? Zsuzsanna Szelényi (@ZSzelenyi) is a Hungarian psychologist and politician. Robin Archer is the Director of the Ralph Miliband Programme, LSE. The Ralph Miliband Programme (@RMilibandLSE) is one of LSE's most prestigious lecture series and seeks to advance Ralph Miliband's spirit of free social inquiry. Twitter Hashtag for this event: #LSEHungary

Speaker(s): Shanelle Hall, Dr Rebecca Newton, Shaheen Sayed, Shaun Sinniah | Authentic leadership drives organisational success, yet is often misinterpreted in the workplace. In this book launch and panel session, Dr Rebecca Newton discusses what it really means to lead with authenticity, how to influence with integrity and drive positive change. Shanelle Hall (@shanellehall) was appointed by the United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon as Deputy Executive Director of the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) on 6 June 2016. Shanelle served as Director of UNICEF's Supply Division (2007-2016), the organisation's procurement and logistics headquarters in Copenhagen, where she oversaw UNICEF's global supply activities and emergency supply response, with an annual expenditure exceeding USD 3.4 billion. She helped to expand the Supply function beyond service delivery to being a major strategic contributor to UNICEF results. Prior to that role, Shanelle served as Deputy Director of Supply Division and Chief of Immunization in Supply Division. Rebecca Newton is an organisational and social psychologist and Senior Visiting Fellow in the Department of Management. She has spent the past two decades researching and teaching on leadership, organisational culture, change, collaboration and management practice. Dr Newton has a PhD in Organisational Psychology from the LSE, was a Visiting Fellow at Harvard University, and has run executive education programmes on behalf of the LSE, Duke CE, University of Cambridge and Harvard Law School. She is a regular contributor to Harvard Business Review and Forbes, and serves on the editorial board for the Journal of Change Management. Dr Newton is the CEO of CoachAdviser and has worked with leaders and teams from a range of organisations, including Bank of America, Coca-Cola, Google, HSBC, Microsoft, Nike and more. Her latest book is Authentic Gravitas. Shaheen Sayed (@ShaheenSayed5) is the CEO of Accenture's Government Business in the UK & Ireland. She is a technologist by trade, who has most recently been at the forefront of delivering digital solutions to the Financial Services industry. Recognised as a senior advisor on talent and the workforce of the future, she was included in the Top 100 influential BAME global leaders by the Financial Times as well as Cranfield School of Management’s 100 Women to Watch in their 2018 list. Shaheen is also the Co-Founder Of 'Outsiders' a Not-For-Profit organisation focused on the intersection of youth education and digital technology. Shaun Sinniah works for Guy Carpenter & Company, the wholly owned reinsurance broking subsidiary of Marsh & McLennan, the world's leading professional service firm in the areas of risk, strategy and people. At Guy Carpenter, Shaun is a Managing Director and looks after the Strategy & Sales functions across the International platform. Prior to joining Guy Carpenter, Shaun spent 9 years at Willis Towers Watson and its predecessor firms across group strategy, M&A and reinsurance, where at the age of 29 he became the youngest Managing Director in Willis' 180 year history. Shaun started his career at Goldman Sachs in London and Hong Kong and has a BEng (Hons), MSc and DIC in Engineering from Imperial College. Shaun is a trustee of his local Church and Compassion UK, which provides sponsorship, education and healthcare to over 100,000 children living in poverty around the world. Sandy Pepper joined the Department of Management in September 2008 as an ESRC/FME Fellow. He was appointed Senior Fellow in September 2011 and Professor of Management Practice in January 2013. He previously had a long career at PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) where he held various senior management roles, including global leader of the Human Resource Services consulting practice from 2002-2006.

Speaker(s): Professor Hiroko Akiyama, Kath Scanlon, Dr Thijs Van Den Broek, Professor Alan Walker | We hope you're enjoying this year's programme of public events and that you'll stay tuned for the exciting events we have lined up, for the summer term. In the meantime we have another podcast series we think you might enjoy. LSE IQ is an award-winning monthly podcast in which we ask some of the smartest social scientists - and other experts - to answer intelligent questions about economics, politics or society. Recent episodes have tackled questions such as 'Is the gentrification of our global cities inevitable?', 'Should we fear the rise of the far right?' and 'How does the modern world affect relationships?'. To give you a taste of LSEIQ the latest episode, which asks 'How can we age better?', is available for you here in our public events podcast feed. To listen to other episodes, search for LSE IQ in your favourite podcast app or visit lse.ac.uk/iq. We'd like to hear your opinion too so why not join the discussion on social media using the hashtag LSEIQ and please also consider leaving a review on iTunes as this makes the podcast easier for new listeners to discover.

Speaker(s): Nancy Pelosi | Join us for this conversation between Nancy Pelosi, Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives and LSE's Peter Trubowitz, Director of the US Centre at the School. Nancy Pelosi (@SpeakerPelosi) is the 52nd Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives, having made history in 2007 when she was elected the first woman to serve as Speaker of the House. Now in her third term as Speaker, Pelosi made history again in January 2019 when she regained her position second-in-line to the presidency, the first person to do so in more than 60 years. Speaker Pelosi is the highest ranking woman in American history and the most powerful Democrat in Washington. Peter Trubowitz (@ptrubowitz) is Department Head of International Relations and Director of the US Centre at the London School of Economics and Political Science and Associate Fellow at Chatham House, Royal Institute of International Affairs. The LSE's United States Centre (@LSE_US) is a hub for global expertise, analysis and commentary on America. Our mission is to promote policy-relevant and internationally-oriented scholarship to meet the growing demand for fresh analysis and critical debate on the United States. Twitter Hashtag for this event: #LSEPelosi Video The recording of the Facebook Live of this event is available to watch at In Conversation with U.S. House Speaker Nancy Pelosi.

Speaker(s): Sir Mike Aaronson, Maryam Ahmed, Mary Robinson, Rafia Zakaria | In 2019, Save the Children celebrates 100 years of working at the interface of politics, humanitarianism, and children’s rights. What does the future hold? Bringing together a panel of leading experts, the conversation will analyse how children's rights have transformed over the last 100 years. We will consider how the relationship between politics and humanitarianism is changing amidst transformations in the global ideological landscape, and where this leaves us for the future. Mike Aaronson (@MikeAaronson) was Director General of Save the Children UK 1995-2005. Maryam Ahmed graduated as a youth ambassador for Save the Children Nigeria in 2018. She has advocated for children's rights in Nigeria and in international forums. She particularly campaigns to end child marriage and sexual abuse, and to ensure girls have access to education and reproductive rights. Mary Robinson served as President of Ireland (1990-97) and UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (1997-2002). Rafia Zakaria (@rafiazakaria) is an author and attorney, she served on the Board of Amnesty International USA for two terms between 2009-2015 and was the first Pakistani-American woman to do so. Alcinda Honwana is an LSE Centennial Professor and Inter-Regional Adviser at UN DESA. Based at LSE in Pethick-Lawrence House, the Firoz Lalji Centre for Africa (@AfricaAtLSE) promotes independent academic research and teaching; open and issue-oriented debate; and evidence-based policy making. The Centre accomplishes this by connecting different social science disciplines and by working in partnership with Africa bringing African voices to the global debate. Twitter Hashtags for this event: #LSESave #SCconf100 Video The recording of the Facebook Live of this event is available to watch at Politics, Humanitarianism and Children's Rights.

Speaker(s): Professor Danny Dorling, Professor Sally Tomlinson, Professor Gurminder K Bhambra, Professor Will Hutton | In 2016, the UK voted to leave the European Union – but has yet to leave its Empire past behind. What part did the long afterlife of the world’s largest-ever Empire play in Britain’s view of itself and world? And could a post-EU Britain, against all the odds, become less unequal? Join us as four eminent scholars turn their attention to often overlooked elements in the story – Britain’s past imperial might, jingoism, mythmaking and racism; deep-set anxieties about change and conflicting visions of the future – and the possibility of an unexpected outcome, namely that its shock to the national system may slow or even reverse the decades-long rise of inequality. In their new co-authored book Rule Britannia: Brexit and the End of Empire, Danny Dorling and Sally Tomlinson argue that while Brexit will almost certainly require the UK to confront its own “shocking, Dorian Gray-like deteriorated image”, “out of the ashes of Brexit could, should and perhaps will come a chastened, less small-minded, less greedy future. There are good reasons to be hopeful.” Danny Dorling (@dannydorling) is Halford Mackinder Professor of Geography at the University of Oxford. He is author of books including Peak Inequality: Britain’s Ticking Time Bomb, The Equality Effect: Improving Life for Everyone and All That Is Solid: How the Great Housing Disaster Defines Our Times, and What We Can Do About It. Sally Tomlinson is Emeritus Professor at Goldsmiths University of London and Honorary Research Fellow in the Department of Education at the University of Oxford. She is author of books including A Sociology of Special and Inclusive Education: Exploring the Manufacture of Inability and Education and Race from Empire to Brexit. Gurminder K Bhambra (@GKBhambra) is Professor of Postcolonial and Decolonial Studies in the School of Global Studies at the University of Sussex. She is author of books including Connected Sociologies: Theory for a Global Age. Will Hutton (@williamnhutton) is principal of Hertford College, Oxford, and Visiting Professor at the University of Manchester Business School. Bev Skeggs(@bevskeggs) is Professor of Sociology and Academic Director of the Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity programme at the International Inequalities Institute. The Atlantic Fellows for Social and Economic Equity programme is one of seven Atlantic Fellowships around the world, committed to building a global community of leaders working together to advance equity, justice and human dignity. The International Inequalities Institute (@LSEInequalities) at LSE brings together experts from many LSE departments and centres to lead cutting-edge research focused on understanding why inequalities are escalating in numerous arenas across the world, and to develop critical tools to address these challenges. This event is supported by the Progressive Economy Forum (@PEF_online). PEF brings together a Council of eminent economists and academics to develop and advocate progressive economic policy ideas, and to improve public understanding of key economic issues. Twitter Hashtag for this event: #LSEInequality Update: due to unforeseen circumstances Professor John Weeks is no longer speaking at this event.

Speaker(s): Professor Catherine Barnard, Professor Sir Charles Bean, Jill Rutter | Editor's note: Unfortunately the last few minutes of the event are missing from the podcast. Our panel reviews what has been decided and resolved on Brexit, as well as the short- and long-term implications for Britain. Catherine Barnard (@CSBarnard24) is Professor in European Union Law and Employment Law at the University of Cambridge, and senior tutor and fellow of Trinity College. She specialises in EU law and employment law. She is author of EU Employment Law, The Substantive Law of the EU: The Four Freedoms, and (with Peers ed), European Union Law. Currently, Catherine is a Senior Fellow in the ESRC’s UK in a Changing Europe project which looks at all aspects of Brexit in its various manifestations. Charles Bean is Professor of Economics in the Department of Economics at LSE and former Deputy Governor of the Bank of England. Jill Rutter (@jillongovt) is a programme director for Brexit at the Institute for Government and has co-authored a number of the Institute reports on the implications of Brexit for Whitehall and Westminster. She has also produced reports on better policy making, most recently on making tax policy better, arm’s length governance and on the centre. Before joining IFG, Jill was Director of Strategy and Sustainable Development at Defra. Prior to that she worked for BP for six years, following a career in the Treasury, and a two nd a half years secondment to the No.10 Policy Unit. Kevin Featherstone is Eleftherios Venizelos Professor of Contemporary Greek Studies and Professor of European Politics and Director of the Hellenic Observatory. The LSE European Institute (@LSEEI) is a centre for research and graduate teaching on the processes of integration and fragmentation within Europe. In the most recent national Research Excellence Framework (REF 2014) the Institute was ranked first for research in its sector. The School of Public Policy (@LSEPublicPolicy) equips you with the skills and ideas to transform people and societies. We are an international community where ideas and practice meet. Our approach creates professionals with the ability to analyse, understand and resolve the challenges of contemporary governance.

Speaker(s): Professor David Spiegelhalter | In his new book, The Art of Statistics, David Spiegelhalter guides us through the essential principles we need in order to derive knowledge from data, showing us why data can never speak for itself. He explains the basic concepts, from regression to P-values (without using mathematics), and introduces the intellectual ideas that underpin statistics. Drawing on numerous real world examples, he shows us how statistics can help us determine the luckiest passenger on the Titanic, whether serial killer Harold Shipman could have been caught earlier, and if the skeleton in the Leicester car park really was Richard III. Sir David Spiegelhalter is a British statistician and Chair of the Winton Centre for Risk and Evidence Communication in the Statistical Laboratory at the University of Cambridge. Spiegelhalter is one of the most cited and influential researchers in his field, and was elected as President of the Royal Statistical Society for 2017-18. Fiona Steele is a Professor of Statistics and Deputy Head of the Department of Statistics at LSE. Fiona first joined in LSE in 1996 as Lecturer in Statistics and Research Methodology. She then worked at the Institute of Education, University of London 2001-2005, followed by the University of Bristol 2005-2013 where she was Professor of Social Statistics and Director of the Centre for Multilevel Modelling. She returned to LSE in 2013. The Department of Statistics (@StatsDeptLSE) offers a vibrant research environment and a comprehensive programme of undergraduate and postgraduate degrees.

Speaker(s): Professor Bob Jessop, Professor Costas Lapavitsas, Professor Peter Ramsay, Professor Lea Ypi | Are we all Marxists now? Which of Marx’s ideas remain relevant, which redundant? Join leading scholars to address Marx’s legacy at 201. Are we all Marxists now? The question may sound strange but the virtues of the German philosopher are now extolled in the most unlikely of places. If this may be partly explained by the recent flurry of biographies and anniversaries – 2017 saw anniversaries of Das Kapital and the Russian Revolution, 2018 the bicentenary of his birth - the extraordinary growth of interest in Marx since the financial crisis seems undeniable. Socialism is even a talking point in the United States of America. and yet, the world looks as far removed from any communist utopia as could be imagined. Capitalism has accelerated; neoliberalism remains dominant, social democracy largely in retreat. If the political and ideological ascendency of capital has been fractured in the recent period, this seems predominantly to have benefitted the Right, leading to fears that a very different spectre from the one envisaged by Marx may now be haunting Europe, and the globe. Now therefore seems an opportune moment to reflect on the legacy of Karl Marx for the contemporary study of law, politics and society. Why is his influence so pervasive and resilient? Which ideas remain relevant, which redundant? The purpose of this event is to explore these questions with leading scholars from across different disciplines: economics, political theory, sociology and law. Bob Jessop is Professor of Sociology at the University of Lancaster. Costas Lapavitsas (@C_Lapavitsas) is Professor of Economics at SOAS. Peter Ramsay (@PeterRamsay2011) is Professor of Law at LSE. Lea Ypi (@lea_ypi) is Professor in Political Theory at LSE. Mike Wilkinson is Associate Professor of Law at LSE. LSE Law (@LSELaw) is one of the world's top law schools with an international reputation for the quality of its teaching and legal research.